Neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP)
NLP
is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs that adherents use
primarily as an approach to personal development. It is based
on the idea that mind, body and language interact to create
an individual's perception of the world and that perceptions,
and hence behaviors, can be changed by the application of a
variety of techniques. An important technique is, "modeling"
which involves the careful reproduction of the behaviors and
beliefs of those who have achieved "excellence". The early
focus of NLP was the study of the underlying patterns in the
language and techniques of noted and successful therapists in
hypnotherapy, gestalt therapy and family therapy. The
patterns discovered were adapted for general communication
and for effecting change.
Despite its popularity,[1][2] NLP continues to be
controversial, particularly for use in therapy, and after
three decades of existence, remains scientifically
unvalidated.[3] NLP has been criticized for lacking a
defining and regulating body to impose standards and a
professional ethical code.[4]
General description
NLP
was influenced by hypnotherapy, psychotherapy and the human
potential movement. Its basic ideas were developed circa
1973. Bandler and Grinder originally focused on modeling the
communication (verbal and non-verbal) and thinking strategies
of noted psychotherapists. Although its theoretical
principles have not been supported by psychological and
experimental research,[5][6] many of its techniques are
derived from existing therapeutic techniques[5].
There are many definitions and variations of NLP amongst its
proponents. Bandler defines NLP as "an attitude and a
methodology which leaves behind a trail of techniques"
whereas Grinder defines NLP as "the study of excellence and
how to reproduce it".[7] NLP author Robert Dilts calls the
system "the study of the structure of subjective
experience".[8] NLP techniques may be used in group
trainings, seminars, or individual consultations.
Practitioners deal with personal issues like reframing what
they consider to be negative beliefs, dealing with stage
fright and simple phobias, or depression. Adherents may take
up NLP as a skill set for coaching, consulting, or
counseling.[4] Trainers may mix NLP techniques with ideas
about motivational techniques, adult learning, management,
sales training, popular psychology and even seduction. It is
also used as an adjunct by therapists in other therapeutic
disciplines.
Concepts and methods
NLP is based on the idea that human senses are limited in
scope, hence a person perceives only a small part of the
world via those senses. Thus, proponents state that a
person's view of the world is filtered by biology,
experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. These filters
form a person's logical construct of the world, referred to
by NLP adherants as a "map". NLP advocates hold that the
human mind-body (neuro) complex and what people say
(linguistic), interact together to form perceptions of the
world, or maps (programming).
A core tennet is Alfred Korzybski's idiom, the map is not the
territory: in other words people act and feel based on their
perception or maps of the world rather than the actual world.
Practitioners of NLP believe that most people's maps are an
impoverished, distorted representation of the actual world.
This then leads people to create what are considered to be
unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking. By exploring
and challenging parts of their map, the practitioner seeks to
modify, replace or reframe these thought patterns in order to
improve the clients internal experience and achieve more
effective and flexible behavior.[9][10][11][12]
One NLP method for doing this is 'modeling'. NLP holds that
language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional)
are highly structured, and that this structure can be
'modeled' or copied into a reproducible form.[10] The
founders, Bandler and Grinder, started by analysing in detail
and then searching for what made successful psychotherapists
different from their peers. The original models were: Milton
Erickson (hypnotherapy), Virginia Satir (family therapy), and
Fritz Perls (gestalt therapy). The patterns discovered were
adapted for general communication and effecting change.[10]
NLP embodies many techniques, including hypnotic techniques,
which proponents claim can affect changes in the way people
think, learn and communicate.[13] NLP is an eclectic field,
often described as a 'toolbox', which has borrowed heavily
from other fields in collating its presuppositions and
techniques.
Modeling
"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors,
language, strategies and beliefs of another in order to
'build a model of what they do...we know that our modeling
has been successful when we can systematically get the same
behavioral outcome as the person we have modeled'.[10] The
'model' is then reduced to a pattern that can be taught to
others. NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously
assimilate the tacit knowledge of what the master is doing,
and of which the master is not aware, and can involve
modeling "exceptional" people.[14] Bandler and Grinder state
"the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions
which are useful."[10] Einspruch & Forman 1985 state that
"when modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her
own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology,
language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being
modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally
reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and
behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process
occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her
own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the
one who was modeled."[15] Modeling is not confined to
therapy, but is applied to a broad range of human learning.
Another aspect of modeling is understanding the patterns of
one's own behaviors in order to 'model' the more successful
parts of oneself.
Meta model
In NLP the Meta-model is a set of specifying questions or
language patterns designed to challenge and expand the limits
to a person's model or 'map' of the world. It is based on the
verbal patterning of Fritz Perls and Virginia Satir and is
intended to facilitate the detection of limiting beliefs and
restrictive thinking. When a person speaks about a problem or
situation their choice of words, (or ‘indicators’), will
distort, generalize, and delete portions of their experience.
The questions in the meta-model are designed to bring clarity
to the client's language and so to their underlying
restrictive thinking and beliefs.
By listening to and responding to these language patterns the
practitioner seeks to help the client to recover the
information that is under the surface of the words. A
therapist who 'listens' on the basis of their existing belief
systems may miss important aspects.
Milton
model
The Milton model is a way of communicating based on the
hypnotic language patterns of Milton Erickson.[16] It has
been described as "a way of using language to induce and
maintain trance in order to contact the hidden resources of
our personality".[17] The Milton model has three primary
aspects: Firstly, to assist in building and maintaining
rapport with the client. Secondly, to overload and distract
the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be
cultivated. Thirdly, to allow for interpretation in the words
offered to the client.[18] Furthermore, communicating with
metaphor was an essential part of Milton's methods providing
a platform whereby Erickson could smoothly deliver his
therapeutic suggestions.
Building rapport
First, building rapport, or empathy, is done to achieve
better communication and responsiveness. NLP teaches
'mirroring' or matching body language, posture, breathing,
predicates and voice tonality. Rapport is an aspect of
'pacing' or tuning into the client or learner's world. Once
pacing is established, the practitioner can 'lead' by
changing their behavior or perception so the other follows.
O'Connor & Seymour, in "Introducing NLP", describe
rapport as a 'harmonious dance', an extension of natural
skills, but they warn against mimicry.[17] Singer gives
examples of the pantomime effect of mere mimicry by some
practitioners which does not create rapport.[2]
Conscious/Unconscious
attention
Second, Erickson used ambiguous language, that is, words and
sentences with multiple meanings. The clients conscious
memory would be overloaded creating an opportunity for
unconscious communication and resources to become available
to the client. The milton model attempts to capture these
patterns in artfully vague language, ambiguity, and metaphor.
Erickson was aware that the capacity limit of short term,
conscious memory was seven (plus or minus two) elements,
called 'chunks' or the "magical number seven", introduced by
Miller (1956)[19].
Indirect communication
Furthermore, indirect communication is purposely kept vague
and metaphoric to assist the client and practitioner to work
with the unconscious mind. Indirect communication is also
used to soften the meta model and make indirect
suggestions.[20]
Communicating
with metaphor
Largely derived from the ideas of Gregory Bateson and the
techniques of Erikson, 'metaphor' in the Milton model ranges
from simple figures of speech to allegories and stories. It
tends to be used in conjunction with the skills of the Milton
model to create a story which operates on many levels with
the intention of communicating with the unconscious and to
find and challenge basic assumptions.[21][17]
Representational systems
The notion that experience is processed by the sensory
systems or representational systems was incorporated into NLP
from psychology and Gestalt therapy shortly after its
creation.[10] This holds that people perceive the world
through the senses and store the information from the senses
in the mind. Memories are closely linked to sensory
experience. When people are processing information they see
images and hear sounds and voices and process this with
internally created feelings. Some representations are within
conscious awareness but information is largely processed at
the unconscious level. When involved in any task, such as
making conversation, describing a problem in therapy, reading
a book, kicking a ball or riding a horse, their
representational systems, consisting of images, sounds,
feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are being activated
at the same time.[6] The way representational systems are
organised and the links between them is believed to impact on
behavioral performance. The purpose of many NLP techniques is
to interrupt thought and thus behavior patterns seen as
maladaptive, and replace them with patterns seen as more
positive and creative.[22]
Preferred representational systems
Originally NLP taught that most people had an internal
preferred representational system (PRS) and preferred to
process information primarily in one sensory modality. The
practitioner could ascertain this from external cues such as
the direction of eye movements, posture, breathing, voice
tone and the use of sensory-based predicates. If a person
repeatedly used predicates such as "I can see a bright future
for myself", the words "see" and "bright" would be considered
visual predicates. In contrast "I can feel that we will be
comfortable" would be considered primarily kinesthetic
because of the predicates "feel" and "comfortable". These
verbal cues could also be coupled with posture changes, skin
color or breathing shifts. The theory was that the
practitioner, by matching and working within the preferred
representational system, could achieve better communication
with the client and hence swifter and more effective results.
Many trainings and standard works still teach PRS[17] whilst
other proponents have de-emphasized the existence and
relevance of PRS and instead emphasize working within all
representational systems. In particular, New Code emphasizes
individual calibration and sensory acuity, precluding such a
rigidly specified model as the one described above.[23]
Responding directly to sensory experience requires an
immediacy which respects the importance of context. Grinder
has stated that a representational system diagnosis lasts
about 30 seconds.[23]
Although there is some research that supports the notion that
eye movements can indicate visual and auditory (but not
kinesthetic) components of thought in that moment,[24]the
existence of a preferred representational system
ascertainable from external cues (an important part of
original NLP theory) was discounted by research in the
1980s.[25][26][27]
Submodalities
Submodalities are the fine details of representational
systems. In the late 1970s the developers of NLP extended the
use visual submodalities (common in sports psychology and
meditation), to include other sensory systems involving the
relative size, location, brightness of internal images, the
volume and direction of internal voices and sounds, and the
location, texture, and movement of internally created
sensations.[28] Submodalities and hypnosis became the focus
of Richard Bandler's later work.[29]
A typical "change" process may involve manipulating the
submodalities of internal representations. For example,
someone may see their future as 'dark and cloudy' with
associated emotions, but would seek through NLP to perceive,
and feel it, as 'light and clear'. Other training exercises
develop a person's ability to move around internal images,
change the quality of sounds and find out how these effect
the intensity of internal feelings or other submodalities.
Although NLP did not discover submodalities, it appears that
the proponents of NLP may have been the first to
systematically use manipulation of submodalities for
therapeutic or personal development purposes, particularly
phobias, compulsions and addictions.[21]
Aphorisms/presuppositions
• The map is not the territory - a concept/phrase coined by
Alfred Korzybski in "General Semantics"
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes
• Behind every behavior there is a positive intention
• There is no failure, only feedback
• Choice is better than no choice (and flexibility is the way
one gets choice)
• The meaning of the communication is the response it
produces, not the intended communication
• People already have all the resources they need to succeed
• Multiple descriptions are better than one
Techniques
Anchoring
NLP
proponents state that people make anchors (associations)
between sensations and emotional states. If a person is
exposed to an unique stimulus while in a specific emotional
state, a connection is made between the emotion and the
unique stimulus. If the unique stimulus occurs again, the
emotional state will be triggered. Additionally anchors can
be deliberately created and triggered to help people access
'resourceful' or other target states.[30]Anchoring appears to
have been imported into NLP from family therapy as part of
the 'model' of Virginia Satir.[31]
Swish
The swish pattern is a process that is designed to disrupt a
pattern of thought from one that used to lead to an unwanted
behavior to one that leads to a desired behavior. This
involves visualizing a 'cue' that leads into the unwanted
behavior, such as a smoker's hand moving towards the face
with a cigarette in it, and reprogramming the mind to
'switch' to a visualization of the desired outcome, such as a
healthy looking person, energetic and fit. In addition to
visualization, auditory sound effects are often imagined to
enhance the experience.[32] Swish is one of the techniques
that involves the manipulation of submodalities.
Reframing
Reframing is common to a number of therapies and was not
original to NLP.[5] Reframing functions through "changing the
way you perceive an event and so changing the meaning. When
the meaning changes, responses and behaviours will also
change. Reframing with language allows you to see the world
in a different way and this changes the meaning. Reframing is
the basis of jokes, myths, legends, fairy tales and most
creative ways of thinking."[33] There are examples in
children's literature. Pollyanna would play The Glad Game
whenever she felt down about life, to remind herself of the
things that she could do, and not worry about the things she
couldn't.[34]
Six
step reframe
An
example of reframing is found in the six-step reframe which
involves distinguishing between an underlying intention and
the consequent behaviors for the purpose of achieving the
intention by different and more successful behaviors. It is
based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind
all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be
unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses this
staged process to identify the intention and create
alternative choices to satisfy that intention.
Well-formed outcome
In
NLP this is one of a number of 'frames' wherein the desired
state is considered as to its achievability and effect if
achieved. A positive outcome must be defined by the client,
be within the clients power to achieve, retain the positive
products of the unwanted behaviours and produce an outcome
that is appropriate for all circumstances.[21]
Ecology
Ecology
in NLP deals with the relationship between a client and their
natural, social and created environments and how a proposed
goal or change might relate to their relationships and their
environment. It is a frame within which the desired outcome
is checked against the consequences in the client's life and
relationships.
Parts integration
Parts
Integration is based on the idea that different aspects of
ourselves are in conflict due to different perceptions and
beliefs. 'Parts integration' is the process of integrating
the disparate aspects of the self by identifying and then
negotiating with the separate parts to achieve resolution of
internal conflict. Parts integration appears to be modeled on
'parts' from family therapy and has similarities to ego-state
therapy in psychoanalysis.
Visual/Kinesthetic Dissociation (VK/D)
VK/D
stands for 'Visual/Kinesthetic Dissociation'. This is a
technique designed to eliminate bad feelings associated with
past events by re-running (like a film, sometimes in reverse)
an associated memory in a dissociated state. It combines
elements of Eriksonian techniques, spatial sorting processes
from Fritz Perls, reframing and 'changing history'
techniques.[21]
Psychological research and reviews
The broad judgement of the mainstream psychology community is
that NLP is scientifically unvalidated as to both underlying
theory and effectiveness.[25][5][26]Amidst pleas for further
research there is much criticism of the failure of proponents
to undertake adequate research.[35][36] A number of
mainstream psychologists classify NLP as
pseudoscience.[37][36][3]Others have suggested that any
claimed effectiveness results from its reliance on a range of
therapeutic techniques gleaned from other therapies rather
than any new theories or techniques.[5]
Sharpley's review of preferred representational systems
In
1984, Sharpley, researching for counseling psychology,
undertook a literature review of 15 studies on the existence
and effectiveness of preferred representational systems
(PRS), an important underlying principle of NLP, and found
"little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an
effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for
preferred representational systems and predicate
matching.[25]
Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley
(1984) but disputed the conclusions, identifying a failure to
address methodological errors in the research reviewed.[15]
Einspruch and Forman stated that "NLP is far more complex
than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true
evaluations of NLP" adding that NLP is difficult to test
under the traditional counseling psychology framework.
Moreover the research lacked a necessary understanding of
pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training, there
was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP
as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport
and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.
Sharpley (1987) responded to Einspruch and Forman (1985) with
a review of a further 7 studies on the same basic tenets
(totalling 44 including those cited by Einspruch and
Forman).[5]
Sharpley's second review (1987) included Elich et al (1985),
a study that found no support for the proposed relationship
between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal
imagery. Elich et al stated that "NLP has achieved something
akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a
psychological fad" (p625)".[27]
Sharpley (1987) stated that a number of NLP techniques are
worthwhile or beneficial in counselling psychology, citing
predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving
sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing
history, but said that none of these techniques originated
within NLP: "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium rather
than as an original contribution to counseling practice and,
thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data
supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder
posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory". Sharpley
(1987) concluded that "if NLP is presented as a theory-less
set of procedures gathered from many approaches to
counselling, then it may serve as a reference role for
therapists who wish to supplement their counselling practice
by what may be novel techniques to them."
Other reviews of evidence
In
a major review in 1988, Druckman and Swets NRC found that
"studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP
assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot
recommend the employment of such an unvalidated
technique".[6] They also concluded that matching
representational systems to gain rapport was ineffective,
however the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits
further consideration".
In 2004 Druckman said of the 1988 study "Our experiences with
NLP led to two different conclusions. On the one hand, we
found little if any evidence to support NLP’s assumptions or
to indicate that it is effective as a strategy for social
influence. It assumes that by tracking another’s eye
movements and language, an NLP trainer can shape the person’s
thoughts, feelings, and opinions (Dilts, 1983). There is no
scientific support for these assumptions. On the other hand,
we were impressed with the modeling approach used to develop
the technique. The technique was developed from careful
observations of the way three master psychotherapists
conducted their sessions, emphasizing imitation of verbal and
nonverbal behaviors (Druckman & Swets, 1988, Chapter 8).
This then led the committee to take up the topic of expert
modeling in the second phase of its work."[38]
The follow up study on expertise by Swets and Bjork (1991)
concentrated on cognitive apprenticeship, but NLP was not
included except by way of acknowledgment for the idea of
modeling.[39].
Thereafter it would appear that although individual studies
continue to be undertaken in a variety of fields, no further
major research reviews have been undertaken and NLP was
dropped from the experimental psychology research
stream.[40]
Similarly in the field of psychotherapy it is stated that the
"original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the
research and now it is rarely even mentioned in
psychotherapy".[41]
Empirically validated psychotherapy
In
1990 Beyerstein categorised NLP as 'neuromythology', 'New
Age' and a pseudoscience.[37] He asserts that "though it
claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of
the relationship between cognitive style and brain function
ultimately boils down to crude analogies". With reference to
all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including
NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost
extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all
pseudosciences — deterioration in the already low levels of
scientific literacy and critical thinking in society".
That judgment has been supported by others from the
mainstream, empirically based psychology community, such as
Lilienfield (2002),[36] Drenth (1999)[42]and (2003)[43] and
Devilly (2005)[3] in peer-reviewed journals, and by
commentators on the fields of psychology, psychotherapy and
counselling such as Eisner in 'The Death of
Psychotherapy',[35] and Singer and Lalich in 'Crazy
Therapies'.[2]Psychologist Margaret Singer criticizes NLP as
one of a number of 'quick-fix' techniques, unsupported by
scientific evaluation, and criticizes its promotors and
advertisers for continuing to "call the originators
'scientists' and to use such terms a 'science', 'technology'
and 'hi-tech psychology' in describing NLP"(p.172).[2] Drenth
(2003) uses the "movement known by the name NLP" to
illustrate his descriptions of pseudoscience, stating "Unlike
diagnosis, prediction of human performance or behavior, and
assessment, therapy is not an (applied) scientific activity.
Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not
verity;" ... "But what brings some of these therapeutic
approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim
that their presumptions are predicated on scientific
understanding and scientific evidence."[42][43]
Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction,
NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and
advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began
to appear in trade magazines. The workshops provided
certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor
light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention
made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers
began to question the wisdom of researching the area further
and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP
is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s,
but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource
community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief
still remains". Eisner expresses a similar view.[35][dubious
— see talk page].
Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on
the proponents of these practices, Lilienfield expresses
concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he
includes NLP, comprise a major proportion of the
interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He
raises concerns about the public's overconfidence in mental
health professions and the lack of scientific foundation for
these professions.[44]
Ongoing research
Examples
of ongoing research include the following: an empirical study
using a heuristic qualitative methodology in which the
submodality change process was tested for treating grief and
mourning and which suggested that manipulating certain
submodalities can help the subject shift into more
resourceful state and speed the healing process,[45] a study
incorporating a number of NLP behaviour change techniques
(anchoring, isomorphic metaphor, goal setting) into a program
for learning about and preventing the spread of AIDS which
recommended that these tools be promoted and adopted
internationally,[46] and a review of several small studies on
the effectiveness of Visual/Kinesthetic Dissociation (V/KD)
which suggested that V/KD, although currently at an
experimental level of efficacy and in need of further
well-designed empirical study, may be a promising treatment
for at least some forms of Posttraumatic Disorder.[47]
NLP in the professions
NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations,
psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as
an approach by some mental health bodies.[48]. NLP is used as
an adjunct by therapists in other disciplines and also as a
therapy in it's own right as NLPt. NLP has influenced some
corporate executive coaches who provide one-on-one training
and collaborative relationships to executives interested in
development skills in career or business and may help resolve
related personal issues. ,[49]. Skinner and Stephens (2003)
explored the use of the model of representational systems in
television marketing and communications.[50]. Human resource
professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for
management and human resource training.[40][51].
A number of UK NHS regional authorities use NLP for staff
training at various levels, for training in rapport and
communication in the workplace and with patients [2]p.28 [3]p
27[4]p.27 and for personal development in management
training. [5][6]The Society of Medical NLP runs courses for
health professionals for techniques to be used in clinical
practice in consultations. These techniques were originally
based on modeling Doctors who communicate successfully with
patients.[7]Their courses are accredited for PDP and CPD
(formerly Post Graduate Education Allowance). [8]. NLP
techniques are included in the DOC Guidance Counselors
handbook. [52]
Commercialization, manipulation and persuasion
Self-help critic Steve Salerno states that Anthony Robbins
"made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what
he christened 'neuroassociative conditioning' (NAC). Salerno
goes on to claim of Robbins (and other lifestyle trainers or
systems) that he "actually fans the fires of discontent,
making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude
to (supposedly) curing them".[53] O'Connor and Seymour in
"Introducing NLP" state NAC is "...not strictly NLP.".[17]
Partridge in a compendium called "New Religions: A Guide; New
Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities"
[54] refers to Neuro-linguistic programming as a form of
Large Group Awareness Training. It is not described as such
by notable researchers or commentators in the field such as
Langone or Singer, although it may be used as a component of
some LGATs.[55] In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael
Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very
aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such
groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a
conditioning method to further induce compliance." He
describes NLP as "a tool for generating change for change's
sake" .[56]
NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls
over training or a professional code of ethics. According to
Schutz in his guide to NLP training, training varies from
very short, esoteric or hyped-up power courses at one extreme
to 9 months of professional training under licensed
psychotherapists or the equivalent. He advises caution in
selection.[4][57]
Popular culture and media
In
2003 English psychological illusionist Derren Brown performed
a stunt on national TV where he played Russian Roulette with
5 other players. Some suggested the stunt's success was due
to Brown using NLP techniques in order manipulate the
outcome.[58] Derren Brown (2000) says "Having trained with
the highly likeable founder of NLP, I find it a mixture of
sensible and appealing methods for dealing with low-level
pathologies such as phobias and fears on the one hand, and
sheer daft nonsense and massive rhetoric on the other...
There is no doubt that, to a point, much of this is well
observed... But the idea triggered in me an interest in
exploring these kinds of signals, and now I am pushing my
performance closer into these areas."[59]
In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul
McKenna was shown applying neuro-linguistic programming and
other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your
Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and
addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One
programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler
and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose
weight. [9]
Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 Financial Times
news column that while some "believe that the continuing
popularity of NLP... is an indication of its effectiveness"
and ability to help in a wide spectrum of areas, he noted
others think the success of NLP is "an example of mumbo jumbo
triumphing over science" and that "critics say NLP is simply
a half-baked conflation of popular psychology and
pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it
is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect,
presuppositions"[1][dubious — see talk page]
History and development
1970s:
Founding and early development
NLP
was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and
then UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder,
under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson,
at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s
and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential
seminars were developing into a viable industry. Gregory
Bateson (see Esalen Institute) was influenced by Alfred
Korzybski, particularly his ideas about human modeling and
that 'the map is not the territory'. These ideas were adopted
by Bandler and Grinder.[12]
From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the
exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz
Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president
of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H.
Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and
Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published
using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie
Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David
Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to
contribute to the development of NLP.
1980s: New developments and scientific assessment
In
the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic
Programming Volume 1[13] with Robert Dilts and Judith
Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and
intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed
haphazardly by many individuals. Given the multiplicity of
developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive
system of NLP.[6]
Since the early 1980s, John Grinder collaborated with various
people to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP
which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic
approach to NLP [60]
Richard Bandler also published new processes based on
submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis. [61]
Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, mass
marketed various motivational products incorporating aspects
of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning).
In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews
in experimental counseling psychology and by the United
States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative
assessment marking a decrease in NLP research interest.
1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing
In
July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler
filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming
retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to
use the term under trademark.[62][63] Contemporaneous with
Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States,
Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) successfully asked the UK
High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of
"NLP", in order to clarify legally that 'NLP' was a generic
term rather than intellectual property.[64]
Despite the NLP community being splintered, most NLP material
acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and
Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in
the 1970s.
2000s: Legal settlement and government regulation
In
2001, the law suits were settled with Bandler and Grinder
agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Since 1978, a 20
day NLP practitioner certification program had been in
existence for training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct
to their professional qualifications. As NLP evolved, and the
applications began to be extended beyond therapy - new ways
of training were developed and the course structures and
design changed. Course lengths and style vary from institute
to institute. In the 1990s, following attempts to put NLP on
a more formally regulated footing in the UK, other
governments began certifying NLP courses and providers, such
as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificatein
Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the
Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).[65]However, NLP
continues to be an open field of training with no 'official'
best practice. With different authors, individual trainers
and practitioners having developed their own methods,
concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP",[66] the
training standards and quality differ greatly.[67] In Europe,
the European NLP therapy associationhas been promoting their
training in line with European therapy standards. The
multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to
difficulty discerning the comparative level of competence,
skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to
Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3
days, for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over at least nine
months to achieve a professional level of
competence.[67]
Associations with science
NLP's
association with science has been complex and controversial.
Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim "NLP is rooted in the
synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology,
linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)."[21]
Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about
what needs to be done next to "improve the practice [of NLP]
and take its rightful place as a scientifically based
endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of
human behavior: excellence and the high performers who
actually do it."[68] They ask those interested to work with
researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to
begin to improve the relationship with those fields.
In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory
Bateson says that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings
of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of
human interaction......Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in
making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously
into a tool for therapy."[12]
However, psycholinguist Willem Levelt (1996) stated "NLP is
not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on
vague insights that were out of date long ago, their
linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere
fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong
premises."... "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with
neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics
or theories of programming".[42][69] Cognitive neuroscience
researcher Michael C Corballis (1999) agrees and says that
"NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the
impression of scientific respectability."[70]
Jaap Hollander (1999) in making a number of recommendations
for the field of NLP to develop better relationships with
science, states that "qualitative scientific inquiry bears a
striking resemblance with the process of modelling in NLP.
So, NLP, after all, may not be as unscientific as it is often
made out to be. Modeling, like qualitative research, uses
data from naturalistic settings. Modeling also uses inductive
analysis of the data. Rather than testing for the presence of
predetermined patterns, the modeler looks for patterns in the
observations of the expert, patterns that he or she had not
consciously formulated beforehand."[71]
Humanistic psychology
Grinder
and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory
Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn
positions of empiricists and idealists.[72]. Robert Dilts and
Judith Delozier (2000) say "In considering NLP as a science
however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology
of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented
than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective'
and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and
identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and
influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." ...
"As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more
'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist'
than 'materialistic'" ...[21]
Technology
NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term
NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the
floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his
occupation." (p169). She also quotes Bandler as saying "it
wasn't my job to do theory" and Tony Robbins as saying, "NLP
is heavily pragmatic: if a tool works, it's included in the
model, even if there's no theory to back it up....None of the
current NLP developers have done any research to prove their
models correct. The party line is 'pretend it works, try it,
and notice the results you get. If you don't get the result
you want, try something else'"(p.172)."[2] Labouchere states
that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is
helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler &
Grinder, 1990). While NLP draws on and shares common ground
with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, it has, from its
inception, continued to develop, refine, and apply its own
unique range of concepts, models and techniques." [7]
Partridge (2003) states that "NLP may be best thought of as a
system of psychology concerned with the self development of
the human being" and "It is concerned with the function of
belief rather than its nature. It is not concerned whether a
belief is true or not, but whether it is empowering or
disempowering". Similarly, Stephen J. Hunt states that NLP
"is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used
by several different human potential movements"[73]. David V.
Barrett (2001) also describes NLP as a technique or series of
techniques, or a process. He states that that "the balance
comes down against it being labeled as a religion."[74].
Notes
and references
1. ^ a b Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be
a loser by Satham Sanghera, Financial Times.
2. ^ a b c d e Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997).
Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass.
ISBN 0787902780.
3. ^ a b c Grant J. Devilly (2005) Power Therapies and
possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Vol.39 p.437
4. ^ a b c Schütz, P. A consumer guide through the
multiplicity of NLP certification training. Retrieved on
December 2006.
5. ^ a b c d e f Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on
Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an
Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1:
103-107,105.
6. ^ a b c d Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human
Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National
Academy Press.
7. ^ a b Peter Labouchere (2004) Using participatory story
telling, forum theatre and NLP concepts and techniques to
create powerful learning experiences around issues of HIV
prevention, support and positive living paper presented at at
EE4 - Fourth International Entertainment Education
Conference
8. ^ Dilts, R., Grinder, J., Delozier, J., Bandler,R.,
(1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I (The Study of
the Structure of Subjective Experience). Meta Publications,
1. ISBN 0916990079.
9. ^
10. ^ a b c d e f Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into
Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People
Press., 149(pp.15,24,30,45,52). ISBN 0911226192.
11. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). Reframing:
Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of
meaning. Moab, UT: Real People Press., appendix
II,p.171.
12. ^ a b c Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The
Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo
Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
13. ^ a b Dilts, R.B., Grinder, J., Bandler, R., DeLozier,
J.A. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The
Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Meta
Publications, 284(pp.3-4,6,14,17). ISBN 0916990079.
14. ^ Jacobson, S. (1994) Info-line: practical guidelines for
training and development professionals, American Society For
Training and Development Alexandria, VA Adapted version
available online
15. ^ a b Einspruch, Eric L., Forman, Bruce D. (1985).
"Observations Concerning Research Literature on
Neuro-Linguistic Programming". Journal of Counseling
Psychology 32(4): pp. 589-596.
16. ^ Norma Barretta (2004) Review of Hypnotic Language: Its
Structure and Use. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis.
Bloomingdale: Jan 2004. Vol.46, Iss. 3; pg. 261, 2 pgs
17. ^ a b c d e Joseph O'Connor, John Seymour (2002 (first
published 1990)). Introducing NLP. London: HarperCollins.
1855383446.
18. ^ Pruett, Julie Annette Sikes (2002) The application of
the neuro-linguistic programming model to vocal performance
training D.M.A., The University of Texas at Austin, 151
pages; AAT 3108499
19. ^ Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or
minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing
information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97
20. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1976). Patterns of
the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume 1.
Cupertino, CA :Meta Publications. ISBN 0-916990-01-X.
21. ^ a b c d e f Dilts, Robert B; DeLozier, Judith A (2000).
Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP
New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0970154003.
22. ^ Cooper and Seal (2006) "Theory and Approaches -
Eclectic-integrative approaches: Neuro-linguistic
programming" In Feldtham and Horton (Eds) The SAGE Handbook
of Counselling and Psychotherapy 2e
23. ^ a b Grinder, J. (1996) [Transcript of Interview
http://www.inspiritive.com.au/grinterv.htm]
24. ^ Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of
Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
25. ^ a b c Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in
NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational
system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
26. ^ a b Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In
M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and
Forensic Practices. London: Croom Helm.
27. ^ a b Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L.
(1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and
spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625. note:
"psychological fad"p.625
28. ^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic
Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum
Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online):
Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and
teaching in formal education
29. ^ eg. Bandler, R. (1984) Using your brain for a change
30. ^ Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic
programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp.
526-530.
31. ^ Haber, Russell, (2002): Virginia Satir: An integrated,
humanistic approach Contemporary Family Therapy, Vol 24(1),
Mar 2002,p32 pp. 23-34 ISSN 1573-3335
DOI:10.1023/A:1014317420921
32. ^ Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991)
"The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique.
Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991,
79-90. "
33. ^ Joseph O'Connor NLP: A Practical Guide to Achieving the
Results You Want: Workbook Harper Collins 2001
34. ^ Alice Mills (1999) Pollyanna and the not so glad game.
Children's Literature. Storrs: 1999. Vol.27 pg. 87, 18 pgs
35. ^ a b c Eisner, D. (2000) The Death of Psychotherapy:
From Freud to Alien Abductions
36. ^ a b c Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, Jeffrey M.
Lohr (eds) (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical
Psychology
37. ^ a b Beyerstein. B.L (1990). "Brainscams:
Neuromythologies of the New Age.". International Journal of
Mental Health 19(3): 27-36,27.
38. ^ Druckman, Daniel (2004) "Be All That You Can Be:
Enhancing Human Performance" Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, Volume 34, Number 11, November 2004, pp.
2234-2260(27)
39. ^ John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork (1991) Enhancing
human performance: An Evaluation of "New Age" Techniques
Considered by the U.S
40. ^ a b Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal,
Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training
techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly
8(4): 281-294.
41. ^ Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and
change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by
W.W. Norton, New York. p.122
42. ^ a b c Drenth, P. (1999) Prometheus chained: Social and
ethical constraints on psychology. Vol. 4.4 pp.233-239
European psychologist
43. ^ a b Pieter J.D. Drenth (2003) Growing
anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science in ALLEA
Annual Report pp.60-72'
44. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raisson D’etre". The
Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice 1(1): 20.
45. ^ Miller, F. Clayton. (Nov 1997) The NLP loss pattern:
Imagery and experience in grief and mourning. [Dissertation
Abstract] Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B:
The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 58(5-B) pp. 2691
46. ^ Labouchere P, Tweedie I, Fiagbey E, Ocquaye M. (2002)
Narrow Bridges to your Future: Creating a metaphorical
experience of staying safe from HIV and realising the future
you want presented at the International AIDS Conference 2002
Jul 7-12; 14 pages
47. ^ Dietrich et al (2000a) A Review of Visual/Kinesthetic
Disassociation in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Disorders
Traumatology Volume VI, Issue 2, Article 3 (August, 2000)
48. ^ NLP is used or suggested as an approach by some mental
health bodies:
• National Phobics Society of Great
Britain
• National Phobics Society of Great Britain: List of
treatments and help
• Mental Health Promotions: How to Assert
Yourself
• USU The Student Health and Wellness Center: What are Eating
Disorders?
• Center for Development & Disability at the University
of New Mexico Center for autism
• Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors: Counselling and
therapy
49. ^ Peter Bluckert (2004) The state of play in corporate
coaching: current and future trends. Industrial and
Commercial Training. Guilsborough Vol.36(2) p.53
50. ^ Skinner, H. and Stephens, P. (2003). "Speaking the Same
Language: Exploring the relevance of Neuro-Linguistic
Programming to Marketing Communications". Journal of
Marketing Communications Volume 9, Number 3 / September:
177-192.
51. ^ Also appearing in the issue: Karen E Watkins (1997)
Invited reaction: Selected alternative training techniques in
HRD Human Resource Development Quarterly. vol. 8(4)
52. ^ Guidance Counselor's handbook, section 1.4.5:
http://www.ncge.ie/resources_handbooks_guidance.htm section
1.4.5 [1] (DOC)
53. ^ Steve Salerno (2005) Sham: How the Self-Help Movement
Made America Helpless, ISBN 1-4000-5409-5
54. ^ Partridge, C. (2004). New Religions: A Guide; New
Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities.
Oxford University Press, Page 195.. ISBN 0-19-522042-0.
55. ^ Singer, Margaret (1995). Cults in Our
Midst :
The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace. New York,
NY: Jossey Bass. ISBN 0-7879-6741-6.
56. ^ Michael D Langone (Ed).. Recovery from Cults: Help for
Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. New York, NY: W
W Norton & Company.
57. ^ Platt, G.. NLP - No Longer Plausible?. .. Retrieved on
2001.
58. ^ Was Derren Brown really playing Russian roulette - or
was it just a trick? by Alok Jha, October 9, 2003, The
Guardian
59. ^ Brown, Derren (2000). Pure Effect: Direct Mindreading
and Magical Artistry. H&R Magic Books, 107,110.
60. ^ Turtles all the way down, 1987., Whispering in the
Wind, 2001
61. ^ eg. Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984), Persuasion
Engineering, Design Human Engineering and recent works.
62. ^ Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
63. ^ Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
64. ^ Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
65. ^ Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in
Neuro-linguistic programming
66. ^ Carroll, Robert T.. The Skeptic's Dictionary. ..
Retrieved on 2003.
67. ^ a b Peter Schütz (Accessed 24th December 2006) A
consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification
training: A European perspective
68. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001).
Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises.. ISBN
0-9717223-0-7.
69. ^ Willem Levelt (1996) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch
Programmeren! Skepter Vol.9(3)
70. ^ Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring
Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio
Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN
0-471-98303-9 p.41
71. ^ Hollander, J. Ph.D. (1999, November) NLP and
Science-Six recommendations for a better relationship Part 1,
Part 2, first published in NLP journal/magazine: "NLP World"
Nov. 1999 Vol 6(3)
72. ^ Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All
the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley,
CA: Grinder & Associates.. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
73. ^ Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A
Sociological Introduction ISBN
0-7546-3410-8
74. ^ David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of
Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from
Google Books. pp.434,26
Further
reading
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro
Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN
0911226192
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A
Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books.
198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
• O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J.
(preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming:
The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224
pages. ISBN 1852740736
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic
Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People
Press. ISBN 0911226257
• Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic
Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume 1 ISBN
091699001X
• Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta
Publications. ISBN 0916990249
• Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985)
Using Your Brain-for a Change ISBN
0911226273
• Grinder, M. Lori Stephens (Ed) (1991) Righting the
Educational Conveyor Belt ISBN 1555520367
• Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management
Skills for Communication and Negotiation
• Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways
to Health & Well-being
• Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with
Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human
Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X
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